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8. Catastrophes of planetary scale


8.1. Localization of energy is the main problem of volcanology.
8.2. Catastrophic explosions of volcanoes: Kracatau, Santorini and Atlantis, Tambora.
8.3. Planet Phaeton explosion and black hole clashes.


 

8.1. Localization of energy is the main problem of volcanology (to the top). Theoretical objects of General Relativity, i.e., otons, have found wide application in astrophysics for explaining various sorts of space phenomena connected with huge energy extractions. The problem of energy sources stays sharply not only in high energy astrophysics, in physics of planets and the Earth, but even in energetics of people self-ignitions (see Section 7.9.).

So, the idea of black holes has passed from the most distant objects of the Universe up to the person itself: from deepest riddles of space up to deepest secrets of human body. The problem consists not in amount of extracted energy, but in mechanisms of its localization in very small volumes. Grandiose as the distinction in scales of these phenomena is, the universal answer to challenging secrets of the world is single: otons. A wide range of oton masses gives possibility of understanding different-scale phenomena, explaining thus the main for all these phenomena problem, i.e., the question on energy localization.

Black hole energy can actuate plates in the mantle, cause earthquakes, but, in the main, it can be a point-like source ("heat point") of volcano energy. Having connected the energy source of volcano magmatic cells with micro-black holes, one can estimate the neutrino flow at the terrestrial surface, which turns out to be rather considerable. The neutrino flow from black holes is sufficiently unique: it consists of flows of six neutrino types, which have equal powers. Let us estimate the power.

The energy source power can be determined from available estimations of energy, wasted for volcano constructing, and from its age. E.g., for the Cluchevskoy volcano [Ra00] these quantities are equal, respectively:

 erg and 5103 years < а< 8103 years. For the lower limit of age we have the upper estimation for energy source power: аerg аs-1. The total power of black hole radiation is summed up from the sum of different particles powers:

 

PBH а= Pg + P n + P g + Pe = (kg + k n + k g + ke)PBH ,ааааааааааааааааа аа (8.1.1.)

 

where kg + k n + k g + ke = 1 ; ; ; k g = 0,076 ; . .

 

A part of the energy from a black hole is carried away by gravitons and neutrinos. Only the energy of g -radiation, relativistic electrons and positrons can be the volcano energy source. However, in this case only a part of energy is used: in interacting g -rays, relativistic electrons and positrons with substance neutrinos can be formed, which besides carry away energy freely. The account of these effects can increase the upper estimation of black hole power, but it does not influence its lower one, of which we shall take advantage:

 

Pvol = (k g + ke)PBH , ааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааа (8.1.2.)

 

Taking into account (8.1.1) and (8.1.2) the radiation power of each neutrino type will be determined by the expression:

 

P n = (k n /6) (k g + ke)-1Pvol , ааа аааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааа (8.1.3.)

 

If one introduces some master black hole with Ì0 = 1015 g, the rate of neutrino radiation () with energy () will be connected with other black hole parameters by correlations:

 

, аа а(8.1.4).

 

where Ì0 = 1015 g, Ò0 = 21011 Êî, Ð0 = 6,31016 ergs-1, Åî= 2,110‑5 erg (13 MeV), N 0 = 2,71020 s-1 . The neutrino spectrum from a black hole is continuous, and the maximum number of neutrinos has in it energy E0.

Let us estimate black hole parameters required for the Cluchevskoy volcano energetics. From (8.1.2.) we shall determine the power of black hole radiation:

 

PBH = (k g + ke)-1 Pvol 18,1 1016 ergs-1.аааааааааааааааааааааааа (8.1.5.)

From (8.1.4.) and (8.1.5.) we shall determine a black hole mass:

 

g ,аааааааа аааааааааааааааааааааааааа (8.1.6.)

 

Maximum temperature in the magmatic hearth is , аÊ.

Neutrinos with energy

 

аerg (22,5 MeV), аааааааааааааааааааа (8.1.7.)

 

will be radiated from such black hole at the rate

 

аs-1,аааааааа аааааааааааа ааааааааааааааа (8.1.8.)

 

The neutrino energy from the black hole given is close to that of boron neutrino (for boron-8 Å = 14,06 ÌeV), for which in the Davies chlorine-argon experiment of solar neutrino registration the cross-section of seizer by chlorine (Cl37) is most considerable: 1,35 а10-42 sm2 [La10]. The estimation of neutrino flow from black holes at the terrestrial surface () and the number of absorption acts () is resulted below . The neutrino flow from the master black hole at the distance R0 = 105 sm is equal to аsm-2s-1 , that in three orders surpasses the boron neutrino flow from the Sun. This flow decreases with distance as:

 

аааааааааа , ааааааааааааааааааааааааааа а аааааааа (8.1.9.)

 

and at R > 107 sm the neutrino flow from a micro-black hole becomes less than the flow of boron neutrino from the Sun, i.e., the neutrino flow is considerable only near volcanoes. Estimations of the magmatic cells location depth of volcanoes give values from several kilometers up to 100 kilometers [Ãó10], [Ìè21], [Hu10], i.e. the distance from the terrestrial surface up to a micro black hole can be of the such value (R). In these limits of distances from a black hole estimations of neutrino flow and number of absorption acts are given in Table 8.1.1.

The neutrino flow is apparent from (8.1.9) and Table 8.1.1 to be more sensitive to the distance from a black hole (R) than to its powewr (Ðâí). Therefore, it is more probable to detect neutrino not from volcanoes, which were observed to have erupted catastrophically with huge energy extraction ( Kracatau аerg, Santorini and Tambora,  erg ), but from those with superficial (4-5 kms) locations of magmatic cells ( Mauna-Êåà at Hawaii islands, Vesuvius, etc. ) [Ma10], [Ra00], at which surfaces the neutrino flow with energy close to 14 MeV can appear in 2-3 orders more than from similar solar neutrinos. The magmatic cell of the Cluchevskoy volcano lies is deep enough.

Values in Table 8.1.1. are rather estimative, and they can be changed essentially in the connection with some circumstances. First, parameters of volcanoes (age, depth of magmatic cell location, energy, wasted for volcano constructing) can be specified. Secondly, the amount of energy of G-rays, electrons and positrons from a black hole, which transforms into volcano energy, must be made more exact. At last, the spectrum of black hole radiation itself can be specified in the connection with discovery of new types of neutrinos and other particles. However, all these specifications do not change the main conclusion on possibility of neutrino detection from micro-black holes in the case of their presence in magmatic cells. These specifications will hardly decrease the magnitude of the neutrino flow in 2-3 orders. Moreover, it is possible, that other neutrino types, emitted by micro-black holes, can appear more sensitive to registration than electron neutrino, which are detected by the chlorine - argon method.

 

Table 8.1.1.

Distance fromа a black hole

R(km)

Neutrino flow through the terrestrial surface

j (sm-2s-1)

A number of absorption acts at the terrestrial surface

 

from a black hole with a mass Ì=1015 g

from a black hole with a mass Ì=0,591015 g

аfrom a black hole with a mass Ì=1015 g

аfrom a black hole with a mass Ì=0,591015 g

1

2,2109

3,7109

3103

5103

2

5,5108

9,4108

7,5102

ааааааа 12,5102

5

8,8107

15107

1,2102

2102

10

2,2107

3,7107

30

50

20

5,5106

9,4106

7,5

12,5

50

8,8105

15105

1,2

2

100

2,2105

3,7105

0,3

0,5

 

 

A discovery of even two neutrino types with the same energy and power will exclude an opportunity of alternative interpretations of the origin of these neutrinos, since it is hard to imagine any other sources, which with the equal rate () would produce different neutrino types with the same energy (). The neutrino flow would become the indicator of the volcano activity: whether it is finally extinct ("heat point" is moved in another region) or it is able to renew its activity.

The consideration above assumed the radiating black hole to be practically motionless in the magmatic cell. However, the consideration of directly opposite variant is possible, i.e., a micro-black hole moving on a multiple orbit with the first space velocity, which injects periodically radiation into magmatic cell. Nowadays apocentres of oton orbits with k = 17 approach close to the surface of the Earth. It means, that each day in the certain time in the same region of the terrestrial cortex the "injection" of energy occurs: in the apocentre the velocity is minimal, hence, the energy extraction per unit of distance is maximum. The energy extracted by the oton in firm substance can be accumulated effectively and it is quite enough even for providing volcano energetics.

Thus, there can be geological singularities in places of multiple otons appearance (k = 17): volcanoes, epicentres of earthquakes, ring structures, deposits of hydrocarbons, thermal anomalies, etc.

A period of the Earth's rotation and that of oton changing with time, some otons can cease to be multiple, but the others will become such. This can result in changing and even terminating a volcanic activity in two cases. First, when apocentres of multiple oton orbits penetrate deep enough in terrestrial interiors, and this makes impossible their geophysical manifestation at a surface. Secondly, when apocentres of multiple oton orbits come out above the terrestrial surface, this makes impossible the energy accumulation. This explains, that nowadays only small number of planetary bodies, apocentres of multiple oton orbits of which are close to a surface, has active vulcanism.

The Earth rotation around the Sun leads to the fact, that in different seasons a multiple oton will come in the same region in the different time of day. This time will change each day, approximately, in 237 seconds, and it can be determined from the following simple correlation tc = to - t Nc (t 0 is the time of day of initial count down, Nc is a number of days past, а= 236, 555 seconds).

Moving micro-black holes still more correspond to the idea of heat points, which are considered to be supported by localized ascending flows of mantle material in plumes. A black hole, moving along its orbit, warms up a substance, creating an ascending plume.

The account of a factor of multiple oton motion leads to changing the estimation of energy and neutrino flow, given above for the Cluchevskoy volcano. From the account of this factor it follows the black hole to be not constantly in the volcano magmatic cell, but to occur there during a day, approximately, for one minute. Hence, the power of black hole radiation should be more appropriate number times, and that gives Ðâí= 2,61013 Js-1 . The black hole with Ìâí= 21010 kgs can possesses this power of radiation, which radiates neutrino with the energy about 1 GeV at the rate about а1022 s-1.

At last, let us notice, that not single otons exist in the Earth, but very different gravitationally-connected systems of otons (grassifotons). Besides otons can move in the Earth as otonic swarms. Such the models widen considerably heuristic opportunities of otonic geophysics. Thus, the explosion of one of otons, which is included in the otonic system and causing a volcano catastrophic eruption, does not mean the termination of volcanic activity in this region, because other otons of the system will continue to extract energy.

Black hole (fermioton) clashes in grassifotonic systems can result in earthquakes. Grassifotons can be conventionally divided into two types by the dominant mechanism of energy extraction: 1) radiative grassifotons, the main energy source of which are radiative otons; 2) gravitational grassifotons, the main energy source of which are oton clashes and the accretion. Radiative grassifotons are connected with magmatic cells of volcanoes, gravitational ones are connected with hypocentres of earthquakes. The clash of otons in a gravitational grassifoton caused earthquakes. Distinctions in geophysical manifestations of grassifotons follow from these distinctions in the dominant mechanism of energy extraction: acting volcanoes are connected with the permanent action of oton radiation, while earthquakes with discrete events are connected with oton clashes in grassifoton, localized in a hypocentre (focus).

At the last stage before black hole clash the power of gravitational radiation rapidly increase, and it is possible to be detected by different biolocators. At the moment of black hole clash about 1% of black hole mass is extracted in the gravitational radiation form, and it can lead to gravitational force inversion at the terrestrial surface.

Within the idea on otonic energy source of volcanoes V.Mityanok [Ìè00] carried out the investigation, which has shown, that stationary otonic orbits ensuring the constant energy extraction in the same point near the terrestrial surface could exist. However, on the other hand, as it was pointed out in Section 4.3., the free motion of otons in the Earth has rigid temporary limitations due to the interaction with substance, and finally black holes should stop near the terrestrial surface. Therefore nowadays it is impossible to exclude no one of the models: both moving otons, and motionless. Moreover, as concerned with catastrophic explosions of volcanoes they give similar results.

   

8.2. Catastrophic explosions of volcanoes: Kracatau, Santorini and Atlantis, Tambora (to the top). The problem of energy is sharp especially in a question of catastrophic explosions of such volcanoes, as Santorini, Kracatau, and Tambora [Ãó10], [Êó00], [Ìè21], [Êà10].

Eruptions of a Kracatau type belong to the number of strongest volcanic accidents on the globe. The most powerful eruptions of those fixed by world statistics are eruptions of volcanoes Santorini and Tambora, which energy 10 times has exceeded that of the Kracatau eruption and reached 1027 erg. This energy by the order of magnitude is equal to that of one million nuclear bombs blown up in Hiroshima . If such explosion happened now in a region of megapolis, it would bring incalculable victims surpassing those of world wars.

At the end of current century even more powerful and till uncontroled forces of nature have opened before the humankind. Destructive earthquakes, catastrophic explosions of volcanoes, which energy reaches that of explosion of one million nuclear bombs are the awesome reminder about them on the Earth. Last century such the events were two: explosions of volcanoes Tambora (1815) and Kracatau (1883).

Whether between explosions of the volcano Santorini and the volcano Tambora was not so powerful volcanic accidents? Let us make two remarks. In spite of the fact that the energy of the volcano Tambora explosion is much more than energy of the volcano Kracatau explosion, the Tambora accident is less known. And the fact is not in their locations (both of them were in Indonesian archipelago), but in the date of these events: one has happened in the beginning of the nineteenth century, while another has in the end. If it has happened in the time of Santorini accident, now we would hardly know about them anything. The distance from centres of the terrestrial civilization, thin population, absence of mass media and communications - all this together would make such events practically unknown.

Santorini is localized at the centre of terrestrial civilization, but only geological investigations of the volcanic island in our century have allowed to discover the lost secret of the largest accident in history. For millennia the information about the Santorini accident was lost for science. One can imagine: how many volcanic accidents could be revealed else, which does not concede the Santorini one. In the nineteenth century two volcanic catastrophes were registered, but in the current century such the event was not still observed. When and where can it occur? It is not just an academic question, since if this accident will happen on the place of Santorini, it would bring incalculable disasters.

The explosion energy of volcanoes Tambora and Santorin was of the order 1027 erg. An analysis of oton motion in the Earth shows, that the energy of catastrophic volcano explosions can be provided by energy of explosive black holes (1030 erg). The distinction between the energy of black hole explosion and maximum energy of volcano explosion is explained as follows.

First, it is necessary to take into account oton motions, and only that already gives the value of volcano explosion energy existing (1027 erg). Secondly, it is necessary to take into account, that not the whole energy of explosive black hole can transform in volcano explosion energy. Thirdly, estimations of volcano explosion energy may be increased. The upper estimate of volcanic explosion energy (1027 erg) is considered as limitative still because the solidity of terrestrial cortex does not allow to concentrate more energy during long time. A short-term supply by large amount of energy (Å > 1027 erg) from a black hole followed by the eruption and the discharge of tensions in the cortex has not such restrictions. At last, the account of the Hawking radiation intensity decrease in a substance can deminish the value of micro-black hole explosion energy in such a way, that it will turn out less than that of volcanic accidents. The opposit problem will then rise: finding mechanisms of explosive extraction of far more energy. Moreover, there is the such mechanism in conditions of the Earth: it is fermi-oton clashes in gravitationally-connected systems.

 

8.3. Planet Phaeton explosion and black hole clashes (to the top). There is an asteroid ring in the solar system, the main mass of which is located between orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Asteroid substance of this ring is considered to had compounded earlier a planet, which have given the name "Phaeton". The planet Phaeton have rotated around the Sun between orbits of Mars and Jupiter before the grandiose accident,i.e., the planetary explosion. Splinters, to which this planet has broken up, continued to rotate around the Sun: they clashed with each other, crushed, forming more and more small space bodies. The history of asteroid ring discovery testifies convincingly for the idea of a grandiose planetary explosion too [Âî20], [Ñè10]. The fact is that the asteroid ring has been discovered at that place, at which the existence of a planet was predicted.

Else Kepler come to an idea, that the harmony of the Solar system collides with a disproportionately large distance between orbits of Mars and Jupiter. He made a conclusion, that between Mars and Jupiter there must be a planet. Later the law of planetary orbit distances from the Sun, i.e., the Titius-Bode law (or as it is sometimes called, the rule) has been found out:

 

аааааааааааааааааааааааааа RNа = 0,1 × R Å . × (3 × 2N-2 + 4)ааааааааааааааааааааа (8.3.1.)

 

where RN is a distance to a planet, which number of remoteness from the Sun is N, R Å is a distance from the Sun to the Earth (astronomical unit). There is an exception for Mercury, for which N = - ¥ . For N = 5 a distance R5 = 2,8R Å from the Sun is obtained, at which in that time no heavenly bodies were yet found out. The German astronomer J.Bode, being based on the law above (8.3.1.), has predicted existence of a planet at the distance 2,8 R Å ,а from the Sun (between Mars and Jupiter), a period of rotation of which is 4,5 years.

Scientists did not pay any especial attention to this fact till 1781, when Herschel discovered Uranus. First Herschel thought, that he has discovered a comet, but thanking to Laplace, Saron, and Lexell a planet was understood to have been discovered. Moreover Uranus was soon determined to be at the distance 19,2R Å from the Sun. This value is equal to the distance, predicted by the Titius-Bode law for the eighth planet, located behind Saturn (R8 = 0,1R Å   × (3 × 28-2 + 4) = 19,6R Å ). Such the accuracy was amazing, and it was impossible to attribute this to casual coincidence. The Titius-Bode law has received citizenship in science, and so has the Bode prediction of a planet with R5  = 0,1R Å . (3 × 25-2 + 4) = 2,8R Å ..

Piazzi on the 1 of January 1801 (the first day of the first year of the new century) has found out a weak asterisk in a constellation of Twins with brightness about 7m. Bode, based upon Piazzi observations, has approximately determined the orbit and found out the object to move between Mars and Jupiter at the distance about 2,8 astronomical units from the Sun, i.e., there, where a planet, predicted by him and named Ceres, should move. However, it has turned out to be an unusual planet, much smaller than all other planets.

Olbers on March 28, 1802 not far from Ceres has found out one more minor planet, which has been denominated Pallas. A new planet was discovered at the same distance from the Sun as Ceres. Thus, two minor planets, instead of one large, were found out at the distance predicted by the Titius-Bode law. In 1804 Olbers suggested an idea, that both planets are fragments Уof a former large planet, which was blown up by some accidentФ. Developing this idea, Olbers has come further and predicted existence of other splinters of the planet. Two minor planets, Juno and Vesta, were soon discovered.

The idea on a grandiose planetary catastrophe has been confirmed by discovering of planetary fragments. Thus, instead of a planet predicted by Bode only its remnants were found out, which (more and more small) are found out till now. A total number of numbered asteroids till the 1 of November 1981 has reached 2474. There are grounds to believe, that the total number of asteroids, which move in a ring between Jupiter and Mars, from the largest Ceres (diameter about 1000 kms) up to fragments having a diameter 1 km, is about one million [Ñè10].

Else last century, D.Kirkwood, trying to find out the order in asteroidТs orbits, has selected the asteroid groups, which members move on similar orbits. The number of such groups (families) is believed nowadays to exceed 100. These families have tens and hundreds known members, and the total number of (known and unknown) members of families is in one-two orders more [Ñè10]. Discoverings of asteroid families testify for correctness of the original version of Olbers idea about a multiplicity of planetary explosions. But now the relationship is distributed not to all asteroids, but to some their groups. All this speaks about recent planetary explosions. Strange disappearances of known asteroids and appearances of unknown ones (more exact, appearances of УnewbornФ families) would be a certificate of planetary explosions occurring presently.

If earlier the presence of asteroids near the Earth seemed to be natural, it has become clear after researches of E.Epick, the Irish scientist, that the life-time of near-Earth asteroids, i.e., tens millions years, is small in comparison with the time of planet existence. Such the conclusion meant, that the families of near-Earth asteroids would disappeared long ago, if no constantly working source was, which would create and deliver bodies to the terrestrial orbit. Within the hypothesis of explosions it means a high frequency of planetary bursts. But the fact is not in asteroid production near the Earth. There is a more general problem of small bodies production (down to motes) in the Solar system. Nevertheless, a universal decision of all these problems can appear to consist in explosions of space bodies.

The idea of a planet Phaeton explosion (as well as of other planetary bodies) is confirmed by many facts (by the arrangement, the fragmental form of asteroids, the structure of meteorites). Attempts to explain a catastrophe (by an extremely fast rotation, a sudden change of pressure in its interiors, clashes) collide insuperable difficulties.

Until recent times the physical mechanism capable to blow up a planet was not known. For exploding a planet it is necessary practically instant to enter inside planet the energy equal to by order to gravitational potential energy. Let us determine it for the Earth:

 

ааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааа U Å = (3/5) × GM Å 2 R Å -1 ааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааа (8 .3.2. )

 

Numerically U Å = 2,257 1039 erg. It is in nine orders more than the energy of black hole explosion, which is obviously insufficient for exploding of a planet. The existence of gravitationally-connected systems of black holes changes the situation radically. Clashes of black holes in close systems provide the planetary explosions power [Òð09,11]. Taking into account energy losses of otons during their interaction with terrestrial substance (see Section 4.3.), the estimation of black hole fall time to a central oton of the system turns out to be comparable not only with geological processes, but with technogeneous ones too. The head-on clash of black holes results in energy extraction [Íî02-04] equal to:

 

ааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааа D EBH 0,01c2 MBHааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааа (8 .3.3. )

 

From (8.3.1.) and (8.3.2.) we find the minimum value of masses of black holes, which in their clashing can extract energy, sufficient for exploding the Earth:

 

аааааааа MBH ³ а (3/5) 102 GM Å 2 R Å -1 c - 2 а = 2,5 × 1020 gааааааааааааааааааааааа (8.3.4.)а

 

There can be millions such the black holes in the Earth. Certainly, it is necessary to take into account, that in clashing of black holes the main part of energy is radiated in the form of gravitational waves, the process of which interaction with terrestrial substance is insufficiently investigated. In other words, only a small part of the energy extracted in clashing of otons is possible to be capable to transform in the energy of explosion. In clashing of fermiotons a significant part of energy can be extracted in the form of electromagnetic waves. This lowers masses of fermiotons, in clashing of which an explosion of the Earth can occur.

However, there is no necessity at all in millions black holes capable to blow up the Earth: one such system of otons is enough, that the opportunity of the planet explosion would become real. A black hole with a mass MBH >> 2,5 × 1020 g can quite be at the centre of the Earth, being it germ. Besides of this, a density of black holes at the centre is maximum, hence, the probability of oton seizing and clashing is the highest. A time bomb of grandiose power is laid in the terrestrial depths, which is ready any moment to be exploded.

Let us estimate energy to be necessary for asteroid explosions. From (8.3.2.) the value is easily found:

 

аааааааааааааааааа U àñò = ( R àñò / R Å )5 U Å ааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааа(8.3.5.)а

 

As it is seen from (8.3.5.), the value of a planet explosion energy with decrease of its sizes sharply falls, and for exploding asteroids the energy of black hole explosions can be quite enough. However, for large asteroids and usual planets, as before, clashes of black holes with appropriate masses are needed. Different mechanisms of explosion should be reflected in features of asteroid and meteorite fragments: ones of them should have traces of high temperatures and be similar to volcanic breeds, but others should not.

The explosion of Phaeton is not a unique such event in the Solar system. The facts testify the multiplicity of planetary explosions. According to estimations, the explosion of Phaeton should have happened millions years ago, but during billions years of existence of the Solar system not less grandiose explosions could occur, having changed the structure of the planetary system. In other words, the number of large planets in the Solar system could be much more.

Thus, explosions and clashes of black holes can explain not only the asteroidТs belt, but the existence of all other small bodies in the Solar system. Within the idea of intraplanetary black holes the opportunity of planetary body explosions nowadays is predicted. In particular, a charge of grandiose power is stored in the Earth (it is equivalent to billion billions nuclear bombs), which can at any moment to blow up our planet.

Probably, the harbingers of an accident (gravitational radiation from approaching black holes) will become accessible for detecting, and the humankind will be in time to react on a global cataclysm to come: either by keeping our space house from a gravitational Apocalypse threat, or by opening its new prospects in some form of a space ark.

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